Part One: America and American Culture

I. AMERICAN CONTEXT

1. Geographical and Political Context America is a vast and intricate country in every aspect. Artists who attempted to capture the panorama of America in the early years of the country's founding must have found that the picture expanded continually in size, as if there were no confines at all. It was vast enough to require a canvas of enormous dimensions, rich in detail.

The United States covers an expanse of 9,628,382 square kilometers across six time zones. To put this in perspective, ten states are larger than the United Kingdom, and the United Kingdom could fit into just the Northeast region, nestled between the New York/Pennsylvania border and the Montana/Canada border. Multi-ethnically diverse, the population, as of April 1, 2000, stood at 285,230,516 individuals. Remarkably, around 90% of the population resided in urban or suburban areas, or regions characterized by urban socio-economic backgrounds. These urban areas and types encompass less than 2% of the country's total land area.

Founded by immigrants, America's population hails from nearly every corner of the world. The 1992 census delineated the population into racial groups, including:

People of European descent (including Spanish and Portuguese) African Americans Asian Pacific Americans Native Americans of the Aleut and Inuit tribes.

While English and Spanish are the two official languages, many immigrant communities maintain and regularly use their native languages.

Major cities with substantial populations include New York City (pop. 8 million), Los Angeles (pop. 3.5 million), and Chicago (pop. 3 million). Additionally, five other cities boast populations of over 1 million: Dallas, Detroit, Houston, Philadelphia, and San Diego. There are 21 more cities with populations ranging from 400,000 to 1 million, including Atlanta*, Austin*, Baltimore, Boston*, Cleveland*, Columbus*, Denver*, Memphis, Nashville*, New Orleans, Oklahoma City*, Phoenix*, San Antonio, San Francisco, San Jose, Seattle, and Washington D.C.1 (1 Cities marked with * are state capitals. One of the very interesting political features of the United States is that most large urban areas are not political centers.)

The United States comprises various geographical and cultural regions. Traveling from the east coast to the west coast, you will traverse the following regions (key cities or features are indicated to assist the reader in visualizing the direction):

Coastal Plain (extending from New York to the Texas coast along the Gulf of Mexico) Appalachian Mountains (including the Piedmont region, stretching from Alabama to the border of Maine/Canada) Appalachian Plateau (extending from Alabama to the northern part of New York state) Central and Northern Lowlands (encompassing cities like Chicago, Minneapolis, Memphis, Kansas City, and St. Louis) Great Plains (stretching from the Texas/Mexico border to the Montana/Canada border) Rocky Mountains Western Basins and Plateaus (extending from New Mexico to the Washington/Canada border, including the desert Southwest) Western Mountains (encompassing the Pacific Coast Mountains of California, Oregon, and Washington State).

Superimposed on these geographical regions are cultural regions:

New England The South, including the southern highlands of the Appalachian Mountains and the Appalachian Plateau, as well as the southern lowlands (also known as the Coastal Plain). The Mid-Atlantic region, encompassing a significant portion of the multilingual region of the United States. The Midwest, further divided into upper and lower regions. The West, including Los Angeles and other parts of the country.

The U.S. government operates at three levels: federal, state, and local. America's governing framework is anchored in its Constitution, which serves as the supreme law of the land. The Constitution specifies the powers of the federal government, leaving any unenumerated powers to the state governments. A recurring theme in American history is the tension between federal responsibilities and state rights. All 50 states have their own governors and legislatures, each with its own set of senates and houses of representatives, and many have their own constitutions. State governments have traditionally been influenced by rural values that may not align with the needs of large urban areas. For example, in Massachusetts, the city government of Boston cannot enact new tax laws without approval from state authorities. The Constitution also enshrines provisions for citizenship and guarantees freedom of expression, a fundamental aspect of any cultural context.

The National Assembly consists of two houses. The House of Representatives comprises 435 members, representing each state in proportion to its population. The Senate, on the other hand, consists of 100 members, with two senators from each state. Both houses can legislate, except for matters related to taxation, which are exclusively within the purview of the House of Representatives. The president can veto any legislation, but this veto can be overruled if both houses achieve a two-thirds majority vote against it.

The United States is often characterized as having the largest and most robust economy in the world. In 1994, the gross domestic product reached $5,677.5 billion USD, with an average income of $19,082 USD.

The American economy is highly diversified, with major exports including agricultural products, non-fuel minerals, and industrial products such as aircraft, automobiles, machinery, chemicals, electronics, telecommunications, and electrical products.

Additionally, culture is a significant American export. In 1995, Hollywood was the primary source of U.S. export revenue.

Illustration:: Bing

2. Historical and Cultural Context

America's culture has been shaped by successive waves of immigrants. During the colonial period, it evolved by blending British, Dutch, Swedish, and German cultures while interacting with African and Native American cultures. European immigrants who arrived later swiftly asserted their dominance over the original American culture and heritage. The westward expansion of the nation further continued the pattern of assimilation or, in some cases, destruction.

Not long after the establishment of the Jamestown and Plymouth colonies in the 17th century, American culture experienced a significant influence from a wave of "forced" immigration: African slaves. The early amalgamation of Nordic, African, and Native American cultures laid the cultural groundwork for subsequent waves of immigrants from Europe, Asia, and beyond.

In the 16th century, Spain established colonial systems in Florida and Mexico. The territory of Greater Mexico extended to include regions that would later become Texas, California, New Mexico, and Arizona. By the 19th century, the United States fought to regain these territories from Spain and Mexico, yet the influence of Spanish and Portuguese culture continues to be a significant element in American culture.

As a result, America boasts an exceptionally diverse culture, especially at the local and regional levels. Given the scope of this document, a comprehensive exploration of this diversity isn't feasible. However, several pivotal factors have profoundly influenced America's artistic culture:

A cultural legacy from immigration that instilled a "can-do" attitude.

The distinct histories and cultures of each region, with Americans taking pride in their local and regional identities.

The preservation of cultural heritage by different immigrant ethnic groups, their willingness to share this heritage with other groups, and its adaptation to contemporary realities.

The pioneer spirit of self-reliance, community trust, and a suspicion of government intervention, all of which continue to be evident in cultural funding policies.

A tendency for government action to be a last resort, which has created a prominent role for intermediary institutions, such as semi-independent non-governmental organizations (administrative bodies operating independently of state support) and non-profits, in managing and navigating cultural changes.

The ability for intermediary organizations to build leadership based on competence, a proactive attitude, and a sense of responsibility. This is possibly why America boasts numerous "influential and talented" individuals, driven by their capability to lead, rather than their social status.

Most Americans reside in cities, yet the nation's foundational values trace their roots to a rural past.

The legacy of the Great Depression, with its extensive government systems, and the enduring memory of widespread poverty experienced by many Americans.

The catalyst of World War II transformed a relatively insular nation into a global leader, ushering in a period of great prosperity and rapid urbanization.

The values and expectations of the "baby boomer" generation, America's largest generation since 1955.

America's infatuation with technology. Throughout the 20th century, mediums such as movies, television, radio, phonographs, and computers cultivated a mass culture of enormous proportions. Early on, popular culture held the promise of fostering a democratic culture that catered to the people, rather than an urban elite. However, reality showed that popular culture had become mundane and unimaginative. The postwar economic boom bolstered "high" art, creating a dichotomy between "high" culture (incomprehensible, private, and modern) and "low" culture (intelligible and popular). In reality, the relationship between these two categories is more about dominance than hierarchy, with the development of jazz music serving as a specific example.

The complex relationship between global elites and local and American values.

When Americans are asked about culture, they often think of commercial music, movies, or television. In such an environment, state-subsidized "living culture" can be seen as something unusual, particularly for those who oppose heavy government intervention in American life. Simultaneously, there's a high level of participation in cultural activities, especially those tied to national or local cultural identities.

It's not surprising that federal support for the arts has traditionally been provided indirectly. Tax laws in place since the early 20th century allow individuals to support the arts, with the added benefit of deductions that reduce their taxable income. It wasn't until the 1960s, with the establishment of the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), that a federal mechanism for long-term support of the arts was put in place. This coincided with a period of rapid postwar growth in the American art world.

The primary sources of funding for culture, then and now, have been individual contributions and ticket sales.

3. Cultural Policy Context

3.1. Government Role

In America, the focus often lies on creating financial policies for culture rather than emphasizing cultural policy itself. Americans place importance on how funds are raised and allocated for cultural initiatives.

Until 1979, the National Endowment for the Arts received steadily increasing federal funding. However, during the 1980s, this trend reversed, and federal funding essentially stagnated. This period coincided with a tight fiscal policy and conservative social policies both at the federal level and in individual states.

The number of advocates for government involvement in the arts dwindled, and the arts community struggled to gain new allies in Congress. Policies aimed at supporting the quality and essence of artistic creations lost favor among younger lawmakers, and there were fewer politicians championing a modern vision for the arts in America's future.

Culture no longer occupies a central place in politics, and the budget for the National Endowment for the Arts organization suffered significant reductions. The 1994 budget stood at $167.5 million USD, but it was halved in 1995 by the National Assembly. By 1997, only $99.6 million USD remained. In July 1997, the House of Representatives voted to abolish the National Endowment for the Arts, but the Senate, in November 1997, voted on whether to eliminate federal funding or allocate funds to individual states, overturning the House's decision. Both chambers have yet to pass the 1998 budget for the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA).

However, it's important to note that the President at the time intended to veto the entire budget plan if funding for the NEA wasn't guaranteed. Removing financial support, though currently advocated, would have serious ramifications for other areas of art support because the NEA provides funding on a "matching grant" basis. (In some countries, there are special programs that encourage funding applications in addition to subsidies. Under such programs, the government suggests that if an art group requests a specific amount of funding, the government will also provide an additional matching grant.)

Similar to many other Western societies, the trend toward decentralization has recently become a requirement at the national and local government levels in the United States. State governments are increasingly responsible for administering programs and policies that were previously under federal jurisdiction. Following the 1996 election, this shift will continue, but the same level of funding previously available to federal agencies won't be guaranteed.

In the 1980s, while state arts councils didn't follow the NEA's funding decline and, in fact, saw their finances grow, by the early 1990s, many of them witnessed reductions in funding. In recent years, some states have gradually recovered, while others still face financial challenges. In New York, which had long been a leader in state funding for the arts, funding took a dramatic hit, falling by 50% in just three years after a change in the state governor and legislature personnel.

State governments, with the new responsibility to implement policies, are unlikely to secure increased funding while maintaining current levels also seems improbable.

State funding for the arts has mainly increased at the local level, often channeled through local authorities or arts agencies. Local Arts Agencies (LAAs) play a pivotal role, serving as community organizations or local government agencies that support cultural institutions, provide services to artists and arts organizations, and bring art programs to the public. These agencies actively promote the arts at the local level, aiming to integrate the arts into the daily fabric of community life.

Presently, funding at the local level across the United States reaches approximately $650 million, but this figure may not be entirely reliable. Local arts agencies often bear the responsibility for constructing performing arts theaters and cultural centers, with a significant portion of their funds being earmarked for construction projects.

Another pressing concern for local arts agencies is their need to organize programs that utilize art as a platform for addressing broader social issues. This is often required by local philanthropic initiatives or reflects changes in federal funding priorities.

3.2. Shift from Arts to Social Programs

Many states have transitioned their focus from the arts to social programs. The arts are increasingly expected to serve practical functions, particularly in the realm of community development. This shift in priorities became so significant that in 1995, the National Association of Local Arts Agencies (often referred to as the National Assembly of Local Arts Agencies or NALAA) established the Institute for Community Development and the Arts. Through this informational agency, the Association aims to enhance its members' capacity to collaborate and secure funding from state sources for non-arts related fields.

Illustration: Bing

3.2. Private Sector

The government's perspective justifies funding cuts by proposing that the private sector can bridge the funding gap, allowing private entities to select who and how to support. Lawmakers argue that the arts can explore alternative funding sources from individuals, foundations, and corporations. However, the reality is that there's limited room for further expansion of current levels of private sector funding.

Contrary to common belief, individuals represent the primary source of contributions to the arts, not corporations. Presently, individual gifts make up 77% of all arts donations. Yet, recent data from the book "Giving and Volunteering" reveals concerning statistics about this form of support. In 1987, each household contributed an average of $260 to the arts. By 1993, this figure had dropped to $139, marking a 47% decline. At the same time, these households increased their overall support by 53%.

Foundations have consistently played a pivotal role in supporting cultural endeavors. Notably, the Ford Foundation, with its comprehensive approach to cultural funding in the 1950s and early 1960s, and substantial financial backing, acted as a catalyst for a more strategic allocation of funds. Foundation money is often directed to localities for specific regional purposes, usually benefiting well-established organizations, and typically focusing on campaigns to raise funds for construction, equipment, and related needs. However, this type of funding is distinct from federal and state arts funding, which is precisely what alternative sources of funding are being sought for.

Recent changes in corporate practices have also hindered an increase in arts funding. Historically, corporations financed the arts using their public relations budgets. In recent years, a shift has occurred in sponsorship areas, resulting in a preference for supporting reputable organizations. Simultaneously, public relations budgets are increasingly being channeled toward initiatives in human and community services. This shift, combined with mounting competition and corporate downsizing, is limiting the potential for corporate funding. A study by the Foundation Center revealed that 2 out of 5 companies surveyed believe that their funding of the arts will decrease in the future.